Cosmic Reionization after Planck: Could Quasars Do It All?

We assess a model of late cosmic reionization in which the ionizing background radiation arises entirely from high redshift quasars and other active galactic nuclei (AGNs). The low optical depth to Thomson scattering reported by the Planck Collaboration pushes the redshift of instantaneous reionization down to z=8.8^{+1.7}_{-1.4} and greatly reduces the need for significant Lyman-continuum emission at very early times. We show that, if recent claims of a numerous population of faint AGNs at z=4-6 are upheld, and the high inferred AGN comoving emissivity at these epochs persists to higher, z~10, redshifts, then active galaxies may drive the reionization of hydrogen and helium with little contribution from normal star-forming galaxies. We discuss an AGN-dominated scenario that satisfies a number of observational constraints: the HI photoionization rate is relatively flat over the range 2<z<5, hydrogen gets fully reionized by z=5.7, and the integrated Thomson scattering optical depth is tau=0.056, in agreement with measurements based on the Lya opacity of the intergalactic medium (IGM) and cosmic microwave background (CMB) polarization. It is a prediction of the model that helium gets doubly reionized before redshift 4, the heat input from helium reionization dominates the thermal balance of the IGM after hydrogen reionization, and z>5 AGNs provide a significant fraction of the unresolved X-ray background at 2 keV. Singly- and doubly-ionized helium contribute about 13% to tau, and the HeIII volume fraction is already 50% when hydrogen becomes fully reionized.Comment: 6 pages, 4 figures, accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal Letter

High redshift AGNs and HI reionisation: limits from the unresolved X-ray background

The rapidly declining population of bright quasars at z~3 appears to make an increasingly small contribution to the ionising background at the HI Lyman limit. It is then generally though that massive stars in (pre-)galactic systems may provide the additional ionising flux needed to complete HI reionisation by z>6. A galaxy dominated background, however, may require that the escape fraction of Lyman continuum radiation from high redshift galaxies is as high as 10%, a value somewhat at odds with (admittedly scarce) observational constraints. High escape fractions from dwarf galaxies have been advocated, or, alternatively, a so-far undetected (or barely detected) population of unobscured, high-redshift faint AGNs. Here we question the latter hypothesis, and show that such sources, to be consistent with the measured level of the unresolved X-ray background at z=0, can provide a fraction of the HII filling factor not larger than 13% by z=6. The fraction rises to <27% in the somewhat extreme case of a constant comoving redshift evolution of the AGN emissivity. This still calls for a mean escape fraction of ionising photons from high-z galaxies >10%.Comment: A&A Letter, accepted (4 pages, 2 figures

Radiative transfer in a clumpy universe: IV. New synthesis models of the cosmic UV/X-ray background

We present improved synthesis models of the evolving spectrum of the UV/X-ray diffuse background, updating and extending our previous results. Five new main components are added to our radiative transfer code CUBA: (1) the sawtooth modulation of the background intensity from resonant line absorption in the Lyman series of cosmic hydrogen and helium; (2) the X-ray emission from obscured and unobscured quasars; (3) a piecewise parameterization of the distribution in redshift and column density of intergalactic absorbers that fits recent measurements of the mean free path of 1 ryd photons; (4) an accurate treatment of the photoionization structure of absorbers; and (5) the UV emission from star-forming galaxies at all redshifts. We provide tables of the predicted HI and HeII photoionization and photoheating rates for use, e.g., in cosmological hydrodynamics simulations of the Lya forest, and a new metallicity-dependent calibration to the UV luminosity density-star formation rate density relation. A "minimal cosmic reionization model" is also presented in which the galaxy UV emissivity traces recent determinations of the cosmic history of star formation, the luminosity-weighted escape fraction of hydrogen-ionizing radiation increases rapidly with lookback time, the clumping factor of the high-redshift intergalactic medium evolves following the results of recent hydrodynamic simulations, and Population III stars and miniquasars make a negligible contribution to the metagalactic flux. The model provides a good fit to the hydrogen-ionization rates inferred from flux decrement and proximity effect measurements, predicts that cosmological HII (HeIII) regions overlap at redshift 6.7 (2.8), and yields an optical depth to Thomson scattering that is in agreement with WMAP results. (Abridged)Comment: 28 pages, 17 figures, accepted for publication in The Astrophysical Journa

The Early Growth of the First Black Holes

With detections of quasars powered by increasingly massive black holes (BHs) at increasingly early times in cosmic history over the past decade, there has been correspondingly rapid progress made on the theory of early BH formation and growth. Here we review the emerging picture of how the first massive BHs formed from the primordial gas and then grew to supermassive scales. We discuss the initial conditions for the formation of the progenitors of these seed BHs, the factors dictating the initial masses with which they form, and their initial stages of growth via accretion, which may occur at super-Eddington rates. Finally, we briefly discuss how these results connect to large-scale simulations of the growth of supermassive BHs over the course of the first billion years following the Big Bang.Comment: 13 pages, 9 figures, invited review accepted for publication in PAS

Massive black hole and gas dynamics in galaxy nuclei mergers. I. Numerical implementation

Numerical effects are known to plague adaptive mesh refinement (AMR) codes when treating massive particles, e.g. representing massive black holes (MBHs). In an evolving background, they can experience strong, spurious perturbations and then follow unphysical orbits. We study by means of numerical simulations the dynamical evolution of a pair MBHs in the rapidly and violently evolving gaseous and stellar background that follows a galaxy major merger. We confirm that spurious numerical effects alter the MBH orbits in AMR simulations, and show that numerical issues are ultimately due to a drop in the spatial resolution during the simulation, drastically reducing the accuracy in the gravitational force computation. We therefore propose a new refinement criterion suited for massive particles, able to solve in a fast and precise way for their orbits in highly dynamical backgrounds. The new refinement criterion we designed enforces the region around each massive particle to remain at the maximum resolution allowed, independently upon the local gas density. Such maximally-resolved regions then follow the MBHs along their orbits, and effectively avoids all spurious effects caused by resolution changes. Our suite of high resolution, adaptive mesh-refinement hydrodynamic simulations, including different prescriptions for the sub-grid gas physics, shows that the new refinement implementation has the advantage of not altering the physical evolution of the MBHs, accounting for all the non trivial physical processes taking place in violent dynamical scenarios, such as the final stages of a galaxy major merger.Comment: 11 pages, 11 figures, 1 table, it matches the published versio

Super-Critical Growth of Massive Black Holes from Stellar-Mass Seeds

We consider super-critical accretion with angular momentum onto stellar-mass black holes as a possible mechanism for growing billion-solar-mass holes from light seeds at early times. We use the radiatively-inefficient "slim disk" solution -- advective, optically thick flows that generalize the standard geometrically thin disk model -- to show how mildly super-Eddington intermittent accretion may significantly ease the problem of assembling the first massive black holes when the Universe was less than 0.8 Gyr old. Because of the low radiative efficiencies of slim disks around non-rotating as well as rapidly rotating holes, the mass e-folding timescale in this regime is nearly independent of the spin parameter. The conditions that may lead to super-critical growth in the early Universe are briefly discussed.Comment: 5 pages, 2 figures, matches version accepted by The Astrophysical Journal Letter

Interaction of massive black hole binaries with their stellar environment: III. Scattering of bound stars

We develop a formalism for studying the dynamics of massive black hole binaries embedded in gravitationally-bound stellar cusps, and study the binary orbital decay by three-body interactions, the impact of stellar slingshots on the density profile of the inner cusp, and the properties of the ejected hypervelocity stars (HVSs). We find that the scattering of bound stars shrinks the binary orbit and increases its eccentricity more effectively than that of unbound ambient stars. Binaries with initial eccentricities e>0.3 and/or unequal-mass companions (M_2/M_1<0.1) can decay by three-body interactions to the gravitational wave emission regime in less than a Hubble time. The stellar cusp is significantly eroded, and cores as shallow as \rho\propto r^-0.7 may develop from a pre-existing singular isothermal density profile. A population of HVSs is ejected in the host galaxy halo, with a total mass ~M_2. We scale our results to the scattering of stars bound to Sgr A*, the massive black hole in the Galactic Center, by an inspiraling companion of intermediate mass. Depending on binary mass ratio, eccentricity, and initial slope of the stellar cusp, a core of radius ~0.1 pc typically forms in 1-10 Myr. On this timescale about 500-2500 HVSs are expelled with speeds sufficiently large to escape the gravitational potential of the Milky Way.Comment: 13 pages, 16 figures, 2 tables, some major revisions, accepted for publication by Ap